Jacques Wheps Castil
Executive summary
Haiti illustrates a major climate paradox: contributing less than 0.03% of global greenhouse gas emissions, the country is among the most vulnerable nations to the impacts of climate change. This study examines how energy efficiency, traditionally conceptualized as a mitigation tool, is also a strategic lever for adaptation in contexts of extreme vulnerability. Through a systematic review of the scientific literature and analysis of institutional data (IRENA, World Bank, MTPTC) covering the period 2015-2023, we characterize the Haitian energy system and its structural vulnerabilities: dependence on biomass (72% of the mix), imports of hydrocarbons (85% of electricity production), and massive network failures (60% of losses). The results show that energy efficiency acts as a « virtual centre » multi-dimensional, building resilience through biomass optimization, building thermal improvements and securing critical infrastructure. Institutional, financial and technical barriers to deployment are analysed. This research establishes that energy efficiency transcends its mitigation function to become a survival imperative in countries with high climate vulnerability.
Keywords : Energy efficiency, Climate adaptation, Energy vulnerability, Resilience, Haiti, Developing countries
1. Introduction
Anthropogenic climate change mainly results from the accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere from the industrial era. This accumulation, generated by the combustion of fossil fuels, intensive industrial activities and certain agricultural production systems, causes global warming, the manifestations of which are now observable: rising average temperatures, accelerated melting of glaciers, rising sea levels and intensification of extreme climatic events such as hurricanes, droughts and floods (IPCC, 2021).
In response to this crisis, two complementary strategies structure the international response: mitigation, aimed at reducing GHG emissions, and adaptation, seeking to minimize impacts on societies and ecosystems (UNFCCC, 2015). Energy efficiency, defined as the set of measures for obtaining the same energy services with reduced energy consumption, is at the crossroads of these two approaches. By reducing overall energy demand, it contributes to reducing emissions (mitigation function) while freeing up realizable resources to build resilience (adaptation function) (IEA, 2022).
Haiti illustrates in a paradigmatic way global climate injustice. According to the World Climate Risk Index, Haiti ranks regularly among the ten countries most affected by extreme weather events (Germanwatch, 2021). The country faces an increasing frequency of devastating hurricanes, chronic floods and prolonged droughts that undermine food security and undermine already fragile infrastructure. Hurricane Matthew (2016) caused 546 deaths and affected 2.1 million people, illustrating this extreme vulnerability (OCHA, 2022).
Paradoxically, this vulnerability contrasts with an almost negligible contribution to global emissions. Haiti is responsible for less than 0.03% of total CO2 emissions, or about 3.5 million tonnes of annual CO2 equivalent per 11.5 million inhabitants (Climate Watch, 2021). This gap between minimum historical responsibility and maximum exposure to climate impacts necessarily directs national priorities towards adaptation, although adaptation remains intrinsically linked to mitigation.
The scientific literature has widely documented the role of energy efficiency in climate mitigation, particularly in industrialized countries (IEA, 2022; Rosenow & Bayer, 2017). However, few studies have systematically explored how energy efficiency can serve as an adaptation mechanism in the context of extreme vulnerability and weak institutional capacity, characteristic of small island developing States (SIDS) and least developed countries (LDCs).
This gap is problematic because these countries face structural energy challenges – limited access to electricity, dependence on fossil imports, old infrastructure, financial constraints – which increase their exposure to climate shocks. The central question of this research is: How can energy efficiency be a strategic lever for climate adaptation in a country that is both highly vulnerable and low emitter like Haiti?
This study has three complementary objectives: 1) Characterize the Haitian energy system and analyse its structural vulnerabilities to climate shocks; 2) Identify and assess the main energy efficiency deposits as mechanisms for strengthening national resilience; 3) Analyze institutional, financial and technical barriers to the systemic deployment of energy efficiency solutions.
2. Literature Review
This section presents a critical synthesis of the scientific and technical literature on three interconnected themes: the energy systems of small developing states, energy efficiency as a tool for climate adaptation, and the specificities of the Haitian context. The journal is based on peer-reviewed publications, reports from international organizations (IPCC, IEA, IRENA, World Bank) and national energy policy documents. The aim of this review is to identify existing knowledge on the links between energy efficiency and climate adaptation in the context of energy vulnerability, while highlighting research gaps specific to the least developed countries in the Caribbean region.
2.1. Knowledge synthesis
2.3.1. Energy systems of small island developing States
Small island developing States (SIDS) in the Caribbean share common energy characteristics: high dependence on oil imports (> 80 per cent), small electricity grids, high production costs (0.25-0.40 USD/kWh), and increased exposure to supply disruptions during extreme weather events (IRENA, 2022). These vulnerabilities are exacerbated by fiscal constraints limiting investment in infrastructure modernization.
Traditional biomass remains the main source of energy for cooking in Caribbean rural areas, with dependency rates exceeding 70% in countries such as Haiti and some areas of the Dominican Republic (FAO, 2019). This intensive use leads to rapid deforestation, with cascading consequences for soil erosion and increased flood risk during intense rainy episodes.
2.3.2. Energy efficiency and adaptation: emerging conceptual framework
Traditionally conceptualized as a mitigation tool, energy efficiency is increasingly recognized for its adaptive potential. The IPCC special report on warming at 1.5°C points out that energy efficiency measures can simultaneously reduce emissions and reduce population vulnerability to heat waves and energy system failures (IPCC, 2018).
Several energy efficiency adaptation mechanisms have been identified in developing countries: reducing the pressure on production and distribution infrastructure, reallocating financial savings to other adaptation measures, and extending access to basic energy services without a proportional increase in production capacity (Rosenow & Bayer, 2017; World Bank, 2020).
2.3.3. Specificities of the Haitian energy context
The Haitian energy system has characteristics that distinguish it within Caribbean SIDS. With 45 per cent (< 10 per cent in rural areas) of access to electricity, Haiti has the lowest rate in the region (World Bank, 2020). The national network suffers from technical and commercial losses exceeding 60% of the energy produced, compared with a Caribbean average of 20-30% (IDB 2020).
Accelerated deforestation is a major distinguishing feature. With less than 1% forest cover remaining according to some estimates, Haiti is facing an unprecedented ecological crisis in the region (Hedges et al., 2018). This degradation creates a vicious circle: the loss of forest cover amplifies the impacts of extreme weather events, while energy poverty keeps pressure on residual wood resources.
This review reveals a scientific consensus on the dual function of energy efficiency (mitigation and adaptation) and on the structural vulnerabilities of Caribbean SIDS. However, few studies have quantified the specific impacts of energy efficiency on climate resilience in very weak development contexts like Haiti. This gap justifies an in-depth analysis of the Haitian case, which can offer lessons that can be applied to other LDCs. The overall objective of this study is to assess how, in a context of low emissions and high vulnerability, energy efficiency can be mobilized as a strategic lever for climate adaptation.
3. Methodology
This study adopts a mixed analytical approach combining a systematic review of the literature and a quantitative analysis of secondary energy data. The methodology is structured in three phases: (1) collection and validation of data on the Haitian energy system; (2) analysis of energy efficiency deposits and their adaptive potential; (3) assessment of obstacles to deployment.
The data come from three categories of institutional sources: (1) international organizations (IEA, IRENA, World Bank, IPCC, FAO); (2) Haitian national institutions (MTPTC, EDH, ANARSE); (3) Development organizations (IDB, OCHA, UNDP).
The period covered extends from 2015 to 2023, capturing recent post-Paris Agreement developments. The criteria for inclusion were: (a) direct relevance to the Haitian or Caribbean context; (b) publication by recognized institutional source; (c) availability of verifiable quantitative data; (d) publication period ≥ 2015.
Key variables include: energy mix structure (biomass shares, hydrocarbons, renewables); performance of the electrical system (access rates, network losses, installed capacity); energy dependence (imports, subsidies); potential efficiency (biomass gains, buildings, networks); climate vulnerability (extreme events frequency, forest cover).
Three main limits must be recognised: (1) institutional instability affects the quality and regularity of national statistics; (2) The study is based exclusively on secondary data, without primary collection; (3) Lack of prospective modelling limits the ability to accurately quantify the future impacts of energy efficiency scenarios.
4. Results and discussions
4.1. Characterization of the Haitian energy system
4.1.1. Structure of the national energy mix
Analysis of the IRENA data (2023) reveals an energy mix dominated by traditional biomass (72% of final consumption), in contrast to the Caribbean average of 15-20%. Firewood and charcoal are the main sources of energy for cooking in more than 90% of Haitian households, with a greater dependence in rural areas (98%) than urban areas (85%) (World Bank, 2020).
Table 1. Structure of the Haitian energy mix (2023)
Energy Source Share (%) Main use
Biomass 72 Domestic cooking
Petroleum products 25 Electricity, transport
Renewable energy 3 Electricity (hydro, solar)
This configuration generates three major vulnerabilities: (1) unsustainable forest pressure (consumption of 7.2 million tonnes/year versus recovery of 0.5 million); (2) energy dependence (import of 100% of hydrocarbons, i.e. USD 450-700 million annually); (3) logistical vulnerability (supply concentrated on few ports exposed to hurricanes).
4.1.2. Electrical system performance
The national electricity grid has some of the lowest performance indicators in the world. The rate of access to electricity is estimated at 45 per cent in 2020, with extreme disparities between the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince (80 per cent theoretical) and rural areas (8-10 per cent).
Table 2. Performance of the Haitian electrical system compared to the region
Indicator Haiti Caribbean average
Electricity access rate (%) 45 92
Network losses (%) 60-65 20-30
Installed capacity (MW) 380 Variable
Production (GWh/year) 1,050 Variable
The massive losses (60-65% of the energy produced) are due to technical (equipment vetty) and commercial (fraud, inefficient billing). These losses oblige the EDH to overinvest in production to compensate for lost energy, aggravating its financial deficits. Faced with this precarious situation, 70-80% of urban consumption comes from private diesel generators, at a cost of 0.50-0.70 USD/kWh (ANARSE, 2021).
4.2. Energy efficiency as a lever of resilience: hypothesis test
Our central assumption is that energy efficiency, in a context of low emissions and high vulnerability, transcends its mitigation function to become an essential adaptation mechanism. The following results validate this hypothesis by identifying four distinct adaptive channels.
4.2.1. Channel 1: Biomass Optimization and Environmental Protection
The diffusion of improved cooking stoves (BCFs) is the most efficient deposit. Technical studies show that CFAs reduce wood consumption by 30 to 50% compared to traditional households (World Bank 2020). Adoption of 50 per cent of the population (5.75 million people) would save 2.2 to 3.6 million tonnes of wood annually, reducing forest pressure by 30 to 50 per cent.
This reduction in deforestation has a direct impact on climate resilience. Forest cover regulates hydrology by increasing infiltration and reducing surface runoff (FAO, 2019). Deforested watersheds become high-risk areas during hurricanes, as Matthew (2016) demonstrated where the lack of vegetation aggravated catastrophic floods and landslides.
4.2.2. Channel 2: Thermal efficiency and adaptation to heat waves
Climate change in Haiti results in rising average temperatures and increased heat waves, with health consequences for vulnerable populations (IPCC, 2022). The energy efficiency of buildings thus becomes a public health issue. Bioclimatic design principles adapted to tropical climate – optimal orientation, thermal inertia materials, roof insulation, natural ventilation – allow to maintain acceptable indoor temperatures without active air conditioning (MTPTC, 2021).
The insulation of sheet metal roofs with local materials can reduce the inside temperature from 3 to 5°C. The substitution of incandescent bulbs with LEDs reduces consumption by 75-85% and internal thermal load, reducing the need for cooling (IRENA, 2023). These measures strengthen the resilience of critical infrastructures that must maintain their functionality during extreme events.
4.2.3. Channel 3: La « virtual centre » and reduction of infrastructure pressure
The concept of « virtual centre » based on equivalence: each kWh saved is equivalent to one kWh available for other uses, without investment in production capacity. A reduction in network losses from 60% to 40% (technically feasible over 5-7 years) would release 210 GWh/year, equivalent to a 50 MW power plant. However, building such a power plant would require USD 75-100 million, compared to USD 30-50 million for the targeted rehabilitation of the network (IDB 2020).
The massive deployment of LED lighting could save 168-210 GWh/year (lighting representing 20-25 % of consumption, with 80% reduction per LED). These economies can be reallocated to productive or social uses, strengthening economic resilience.
4.2.4. Channel 4: Secure Critical Infrastructure
UNOPS pilot projects in three hospitals (Saint-Antoine de Jérémie, Saint-Michel de Jacmel, Justinien du Cap-Haitien) illustrate this channel. The installation of solar photovoltaic systems coupled with efficient equipment reduced diesel dependence by 60-80% and guaranteed a minimum of 72 hours in the event of disasters (UNOPS, 2022).
Energy efficiency plays a multiplier role: by reducing the consumption of each equipment, it makes it possible to dimension smaller solar systems and batteries, thus less expensive. An efficient medical refrigerator (0.3-0.5 kWh/day) versus a standard (1.5 kWh/day) reduces storage requirements by 66-80%, significantly reducing costs.
4.3. Regional discussion and comparisons
4.3.1. Comparison with other Caribbean SIDS
Comparé à d’autres PEID caribéens ayant déployé des stratégies d’efficacité énergétique, Haïti accuse un retard significatif. La Barbade a mis en place dès 2010 un programme national de substitution des ampoules incandescentes, touchant 85 % des ménages et réduisant la demande de pointe de 22 MW (IRENA, 2022). La Jamaïque a adopté en 2015 un code de construction intégrant des standards d’efficacité thermique pour tous les bâtiments publics neufs.
Ces exemples démontrent qu’avec une volonté politique stable et des mécanismes de financement adaptés, même des petits États à ressources limitées peuvent déployer l’efficacité énergétique à grande échelle. Le principal différenciateur entre Haïti et ces pays réside dans la stabilité institutionnelle et la capacité de planification à moyen terme.
4.3.2. Obstacles au déploiement systémique
Trois catégories d’obstacles freinent le déploiement : (1) Obstacles financiers : coût initial prohibitif pour 60 % de la population sous le seuil de pauvreté, absence de mécanismes de financement adaptés (micro-crédit vert, prêts bonifiés), sous-mobilisation des fonds climatiques internationaux ; (2) Obstacles institutionnels : instabilité politique chronique, absence de cadre réglementaire (normes d’efficacité, codes de construction, étiquetage énergétique), faiblesse de l’ANARSE (< 15 personnes pour tout le territoire) ; (3) Obstacles techniques : pénurie de compétences spécialisées, système éducatif produisant peu de techniciens qualifiés, accès inégal à l’information notamment en milieu rural. 5. Conclusion 5.1. Rappel des objectifs et méthodes
Cette étude visait à analyser comment l’efficacité énergétique peut constituer un levier stratégique d’adaptation climatique dans un pays à forte vulnérabilité et faible émission comme Haïti. À travers une revue systématique de la littérature et l’analyse de données institutionnelles (2015-2023), nous avons caractérisé le système énergétique haïtien, identifié les gisements d’efficacité comme mécanismes de résilience, et analysé les obstacles au déploiement.
5.2. Principaux résultats et validation de l’hypothèse
Les résultats valident l’hypothèse centrale : l’efficacité énergétique transcende sa fonction d’atténuation pour devenir un mécanisme essentiel d’adaptation via quatre canaux distincts : (1) protection environnementale par réduction de la déforestation ; (2) résilience thermique des bâtiments face aux vagues de chaleur ; (3) libération de capacité énergétique via la « centrale virtuelle » ; (4) sécurisation des infrastructures critiques lors de chocs climatiques.
Le système énergétique haïtien présente trois vulnérabilités interdépendantes : dépendance massive à la biomasse (72 %) accélérant la déforestation, dépendance critique aux hydrocarbures importés (85 % de l’électricité) exposant aux chocs pétroliers, et défaillances du réseau électrique (60 % de pertes) forçant le recours à l’autoproduction coûteuse.
5.3. Limites de l’étude
Trois limites principales doivent être soulignées : (1) dépendance exclusive aux données secondaires sans validation terrain en raison de contraintes sécuritaires ; (2) qualité et actualité variables des statistiques nationales (certaines données EDH datant de 2019-2020) ; (3) absence de modélisation prospective limitant la quantification précise des impacts futurs. Ces limites, bien que réelles, n’invalident pas les conclusions principales sur le potentiel adaptatif de l’efficacité énergétique.
5.4. Portées et implications pour les politiques publiques
Cette recherche démontre que l’efficacité énergétique ne doit pas être considérée comme un luxe réservé aux pays industrialisés, mais comme une priorité stratégique pour les PMA où chaque kWh économisé génère des co-bénéfices maximaux. Trois axes de politiques publiques émergent : (1) développement d’un cadre réglementaire stable (normes d’efficacité, codes de construction, étiquetage) ; (2) création de mécanismes de financement innovants (subventions ciblées, prêts bonifiés, mobilisation des fonds climatiques internationaux) ; (3) renforcement des capacités techniques nationales via la formation spécialisée.
5.5. Perspectives de recherche future
Plusieurs pistes de recherche méritent exploration : (1) développement de modèles énergétiques prospectifs spécifiques au contexte haïtien intégrant scénarios d’efficacité, pénétration des renouvelables et évolution climatique ; (2) études d’acceptabilité sociale et d’appropriation des technologies efficientes basées sur méthodologies qualitatives et quantitatives ; (3) analyses coûts-bénéfices détaillées intégrant externalités environnementales et sanitaires ; (4) perspective comparative avec d’autres PEID (Cuba, République dominicaine, Jamaïque) pour identifier facteurs de succès et d’échec. Ces recherches affineront les stratégies d’adaptation climatique via l’énergie dans les pays du Sud global où l’urgence climatique rencontre la précarité énergétique.
References
Agence Internationale de l’Énergie (AIE). (2022). Energy Efficiency 2022. Paris: AIE. https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2022
Agence Nationale de Régulation du Secteur de l’Énergie (ANARSE). (2021). Rapport annuel 2021-2022. Port-au-Prince: ANARSE.
Banque Interaméricaine de Développement (BID). (2020). Haiti Energy Sector Assessment. Washington, DC: BID.
Banque mondiale. (2020). Access to Electricity in Haiti: Challenges and Opportunities. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
Climate Watch. (2021). Haiti Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. https://www.climatewatchdata.org/countries/HTI
Fonds Monétaire International (FMI). (2019). Haiti: Economic Assessment and Fuel Subsidy Analysis. Washington, DC: FMI.
Germanwatch. (2021). Global Climate Risk Index 2021: Who Suffers Most from Extreme Weather Events? Bonn: Germanwatch.
Groupe d’Experts Intergouvernemental sur l’Évolution du Climat (GIEC). (2018). Global Warming of 1.5°C: Special Report. Geneva: IPCC.
Groupe d’Experts Intergouvernemental sur l’Évolution du Climat (GIEC). (2021). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis – Sixth Assessment Report. Geneva: IPCC.
Groupe d’Experts Intergouvernemental sur l’Évolution du Climat (GIEC). (2022). Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability – Sixth Assessment Report. Geneva: IPCC.
Hedges, S. B., Cohen, W. B., Timyan, J., & Yang, Z. (2018). Haiti’s biodiversity threatened by nearly complete loss of primary forest. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(46), 11850-11855. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1809753115
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). (2022). Renewable Energy Statistics 2022: Caribbean Region. Abu Dhabi: IRENA.
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). (2023). Haiti Renewable Readiness Assessment. Abu Dhabi: IRENA.
Ministère des Travaux Publics, Transports et Communications (MTPTC). (2021). Plan Directeur pour l’Électrification Rurale d’Haïti. Port-au-Prince: MTPTC.
Organisation des Nations Unies pour l’Alimentation et l’Agriculture (FAO). (2019). Forest and Landscape Restoration in Haiti: Opportunities and Challenges. Rome: FAO.
Rosenow, J., & Bayer, E. (2017). Costs and benefits of energy efficiency obligations: A review of European programmes. Energy Policy, 107, 53-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.04.014
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). (2015). Paris Agreement. Paris: UNFCCC. https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). (2022). Haiti: Fuel Crisis and Social Unrest – Impact on Humanitarian Situation. New York: OCHA.
United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS). (2022). Solar Energy for Health Facilities in Haiti: Implementation Report. Copenhagen: UNOPS.
Jacques Wheps Castil
Quisqueya University, Research Team on Climate Change (ERC2), Port-au-Prince Haiti
Haiti-Antilles Pole, Haiti Science and Society (HaSci-So)
Team of Scientific Partners for Research Communication (E-PSci-CoRe)
E-mail: cjacqueswheps@gmail.com
